For two — in wind parts, both players play the same line (returning from a divided passage). Can also mean "for two players."

Return to the original tempo after a deviation (ritardando, accelerando, rubato, etc.).

Gradually getting faster. Abbreviated accel.

A "crushing" grace note — an extremely short ornamental note played almost simultaneously with the main note and immediately released.

At liberty — the performer may vary the tempo, add ornamentation, or omit the passage entirely. Abbreviated ad lib.

Slightly faster than Adagio, or a brief Adagio movement. Typically 72–76 BPM.

Slow and stately, literally "at ease." Typically 66–76 BPM.

Agitated, restless — with anxious, troubled energy.

A broken chord accompaniment pattern where the notes of a chord are played in the order: lowest, highest, middle, highest. Named after Domenico Alberti.

Cut time — the half note gets the beat instead of the quarter note. Equivalent to 2/2 time. Marked with the symbol ₵.

Broadening — getting slower and usually louder simultaneously.

Moderately fast, a little slower than Allegro. Typically 112–120 BPM.

Fast, lively, and bright. Typically 120–156 BPM. Literally means "cheerful."

At the fingerboard — the German equivalent of sul tasto.

At the bridge — the German equivalent of sul ponticello.

An upbeat — one or more notes that precede the first downbeat of a phrase. The Greek/English equivalent of Auftakt.

At a walking pace, typically 76–108 BPM. From "andare" (to walk).

Slightly faster than Andante (though historically debated — some composers used it to mean slightly slower).

Animated, lively — with spirit and energy.

The imitation of the fugue subject by the second voice, typically at the fifth above (dominant). A "real" answer is exact transposition; a "tonal" answer adjusts intervals to stay within the key.

Passionately — with intense, burning emotion.

A "leaning note" — an accented dissonance that resolves stepwise (usually downward) to a consonance. Unlike a suspension, it is approached by leap.

With the bow — the normal playing method for string instruments. Written after a pizzicato passage to indicate return to bowing.

A self-contained song for a solo voice in an opera, oratorio, or cantata — usually expressing a character's emotions at a particular dramatic moment.

Very, quite. Allegro assai = very fast. Similar to molto but slightly less emphatic.

Proceed immediately to the next movement without pause.

Upbeat or anacrusis — one or more notes before the first full bar, leading into the downbeat.

Stating a theme in longer note values (e.g., doubling all durations), making it slower and grander.

A chromatic chord containing the interval of an augmented sixth, which resolves outward to an octave. Three types: Italian (It+6), French (Fr+6), German (Ger+6).

Expression. "Mit Ausdruck" = with expression. Common in German Romantic scores.

A cadence moving from dominant to tonic (V–I). "Perfect" authentic cadence has root-position chords with the melody ending on the tonic.

The continuous bass line and its harmonic realization that form the foundation of Baroque ensemble music. Typically performed by a keyboard instrument (harpsichord, organ) and a bass instrument (cello, bassoon).

Moving, animated. Implies moderate-to-fast tempo with forward momentum.

A two-part form (AB) where each section is typically repeated. The A section moves to the dominant; B returns to the tonic.

Stopped — in horn playing, inserting the hand fully into the bell to produce a muted, nasal, metallic tone. The French equivalent of "gestopft."

A harmonic formula that ends a phrase, section, or piece. The musical equivalent of punctuation.

An extended solo passage, usually near the end of a concerto movement, where the soloist plays alone in a virtuosic, often improvised or quasi-improvised style.

Dying away — getting both slower and softer simultaneously.

A contrapuntal technique where a melody is imitated exactly by one or more voices entering at staggered time intervals.

In a singing style — melodically, with a vocal quality.

A fixed melody against which other voices are written in counterpoint exercises. Literally "fixed song."

Yield, give way — slow down slightly. The French equivalent of ritardando.

Continuous variations over a repeating harmonic progression (rather than a specific bass line). Often confused with passacaglia.

Harmony that uses notes outside the prevailing diatonic scale — chromatic alterations, borrowed chords, secondary dominants, and enharmonic reinterpretation.

A concluding section added after the main structural form is complete. Literally "tail."

A small coda — a brief concluding passage at the end of an exposition or other section.

With the wood — striking or bouncing the wooden stick of the bow on the strings.

With. The most common prefix in Italian musical directions: con sordino, con fuoco, con brio, con anima, con moto.

With soul, with feeling — deeply expressive.

With spirit, vigorously — implies both energy and brilliance.

With fire — passionately, with fierce energy.

With motion — indicating forward momentum, slightly faster than the base tempo.

With mute. Dampens the instrument's resonance, producing a veiled, silvery tone.

Two voices moving in opposite directions — the strongest way to maintain voice independence.

The art of combining two or more independent melodic lines simultaneously. From the Latin "punctus contra punctum" (point against point, note against note).

A recurring melodic line that accompanies the fugue subject in counterpoint, typically appearing whenever the subject or answer enters.

Gradually getting louder. Abbreviated cresc. or shown as a hairpin (<).

From the beginning — return to the start and play again until the "fine" marking. Abbreviated D.C.

From the sign — return to the segno (𝄋) mark and play from there. Abbreviated D.S.

A cadence where the dominant resolves to an unexpected chord (usually vi instead of I), "deceiving" the listener's expectation.

Gradually getting softer. Abbreviated decresc. or shown as a hairpin (>).

The middle section of sonata form where themes from the exposition are fragmented, transformed, reharmonized, and explored through modulation.

Gradually getting softer. Abbreviated dim. Synonymous with decrescendo.

Stating a theme in shorter note values (e.g., halving all durations), making it faster and more energetic.

A section divided — string players at the same desk play different notes instead of playing in unison. Abbreviated div.

Sweetly, gently — with a tender, soft character.

Very sweetly — the superlative of dolce.

The fifth scale degree and its chord (V). The dominant creates the strongest pull back toward the tonic — the V–I resolution is the foundation of tonal harmony.

Two or more instruments playing the same melody simultaneously, either at unison or at the octave.

Sweet, soft, gentle — the French equivalent of dolce.

The development section of sonata form in German theoretical terminology. Literally "leading through."

Prominently, brought out — an instruction to project a line above the surrounding texture.

Holding back, restraining the tempo.

Notes or chords that sound the same but are spelled differently (e.g., C♯ = D♭). Enharmonic reinterpretation can pivot between remote keys.

A passage between complete statements of the fugue subject, typically based on fragments of the subject or countersubject, used for modulation.

Expressively — play with emotional intensity and rubato.

The opening section of sonata form where themes are presented, or the opening section of a fugue where voices enter one by one with the subject.

Solemnly, ceremoniously — with festive gravity.

A symbol indicating that a note or rest should be held beyond its normal duration. The length is at the performer's discretion.

A notational system where a bass line is annotated with numbers indicating the intervals to be played above it. The foundation of Baroque harmonic practice.

The end — marks the concluding point in a da capo or dal segno form.

Flutter-tonguing — a technique for wind instruments where the player rolls an "r" while playing, creating a growling, buzzing effect.

Loud. Abbreviated f.

Loud immediately followed by soft. Abbreviated fp.

Very loud. Abbreviated ff.

Breaking a theme into smaller fragments (motifs) and developing them independently.

A contrapuntal composition in which a subject is introduced in one voice and then imitated by subsequent voices at the fifth or octave, followed by episodes and further entries.

A sudden silence of the entire ensemble. Abbreviated G.P. One of the most dramatic effects in orchestral music.

Stopped — the German equivalent of bouché. Hand-stopping technique for horn.

Joyfully, merrily — with playful humor.

A slide from one pitch to another, passing through all intermediate pitches. On piano, sliding across the keys; on strings, sliding the finger along the string.

Very slow and solemn; the slowest standard tempo marking, typically 40–50 BPM.

Gracefully, elegantly — with lightness and charm.

A cadence that ends on the dominant chord (V), creating an incomplete, questioning effect.

Principal voice — the most important melodic line at any given moment. Marked with the symbol 𝄩 in Schoenberg and the Second Viennese School.

A rhythmic device where two groups of three beats are reinterpreted as three groups of two, or vice versa. The ratio is 3:2.

Multiple performers playing slightly different versions of the same melody simultaneously — varying in ornamentation, rhythm, or phrasing.

A texture where one melody predominates, supported by chordal accompaniment. The most common texture in Western music from the Classical era onward.

Intimately, with deep inner feeling.

Turning a melody upside down — where the original goes up, the inversion goes down by the same interval, and vice versa.

Counterpoint written so that the voices can be swapped — the upper voice can become the lower and vice versa, and the result still sounds correct.

Tone-color melody — a melody distributed across different instruments, so that the timbre changes with each note or group of notes.

Slow. The standard German equivalent of Lento or Adagio.

Somewhat slow and broad, slightly faster than Largo. Typically 60–66 BPM.

Very slow and broad, typically 40–60 BPM. The word means "wide" — implying expansiveness.

Lively, animated. Similar to Vivace.

Smooth and connected, with no gaps between notes.

Lightly, nimbly — with delicate touch and clear articulation.

Slow. The standard French tempo marking.

Slow, typically 45–60 BPM. Simply indicates slowness without the specific character implications of Grave or Largo.

In place — return to the normal register after an 8va (octave higher) or 8vb (octave lower) passage.

Majestically, with grandeur and dignity.

Marked, accented, emphasized. Marked with an accent (>) or caret (^) above or below the notehead.

Moderate. The German equivalent of Moderato.

Less. Meno mosso = less motion (slower). Meno forte = less loud.

Half voice — singing or playing at moderate volume with restrained tone.

Moderately loud. Abbreviated mf.

Moderately soft. Abbreviated mp.

A stately dance in 3/4 time, used as the third movement of Classical symphonies, quartets, and sonatas. Paired with a contrasting trio section.

Mysteriously — with an enigmatic, secretive quality.

With mute — the German equivalent of con sordino.

Borrowing chords from the parallel key (e.g., using chords from C minor while in C major). Also called "mode mixture" or "borrowed chords."

At a moderate speed, typically 108–120 BPM.

Moderate. The French equivalent of Moderato.

Changing from one key to another within a piece. The harmonic equivalent of traveling to a new place.

Very, much. An intensifier: molto allegro (very fast), molto espressivo (very expressively).

A single melodic line with no accompaniment — the simplest musical texture.

A piece or composition. Used in French titles: morceau de concert, morceau symphonique.

Dying away — getting softer and often slower, fading to nothing.

The smallest recognizable musical idea — a short rhythmic, melodic, or harmonic figure that can generate larger structures through development.

An ending ornament — one or two notes at the end of a trill that lead smoothly into the next note. Literally "after-stroke."

A major triad built on the lowered second scale degree, typically in first inversion (♭II6). Creates a distinctive dark, expressive color.

Secondary voice — the second most important melodic line. Marked with the symbol 𝄪 in Schoenberg and the Second Viennese School.

An essential instrumental part that cannot be omitted — often a prominent solo line accompanying a vocal melody.

One voice moves while the other stays on the same note.

A cataloging number assigned to a composer's works, usually in order of publication. Abbreviated Op.

Decorative notes added to a melody — including trills, mordents, turns, grace notes, and appoggiaturas.

Or — an alternative version of a passage, usually written in a smaller staff above the main part, offering an easier or different option.

A persistently repeating musical pattern — melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic.

Two voices moving in the same direction by the same interval. Parallel fifths and octaves are forbidden in traditional counterpoint as they destroy voice independence.

A set of continuous variations over a repeating bass line (ground bass), typically in triple meter.

A sustained or repeated bass note (usually tonic or dominant) held while the upper voices move through changing harmonies.

Losing itself — getting softer and often slower, disappearing completely.

Very soft. Abbreviated pp.

Soft. Abbreviated p.

More. Più mosso = more motion (faster). Più forte = louder.

Plucking the string with the finger instead of bowing. Abbreviated pizz.

A cadence moving from subdominant to tonic (IV–I). Often called the "Amen" cadence.

A little, slightly. A diminisher: poco ritardando (slow down a little), poco a poco (little by little).

A texture of multiple independent melodic lines sounding simultaneously — the texture of counterpoint and fugue.

Two or more different rhythmic patterns performed simultaneously (e.g., three against two, four against three).

A smooth, continuous slide from one pitch to another (in vocal or string playing). More controlled than a glissando.

Between legato and staccato — slightly separated but not as detached as staccato. Marked with dots under a slur.

As fast as possible, faster than Presto. Typically 200+ BPM.

Very fast, typically 168–200 BPM.

Gradually slowing down. Abbreviated rall. Essentially synonymous with ritardando.

The return of the exposition material, now with both themes in the tonic key, resolving the tonal tension of the exposition.

A style of vocal writing that follows the natural rhythms of speech rather than strict musical meter. Used in opera and oratorio for dialogue and narrative.

Stating a melody backwards — from the last note to the first.

Gradually slowing down. Abbreviated rit.

Immediately slower (not gradually). Abbreviated riten.

A form built on the alternation of a recurring refrain (A) with contrasting episodes (B, C, etc.). Common pattern: ABACA or ABACABA.

Literally "stolen time." Flexible tempo where some notes are slightly lengthened while others are shortened, maintaining the overall pulse.

Playfully, jokingly — with humor and lightness.

A lively, often humorous movement in triple meter that replaced the minuet in symphonies and sonatas from Beethoven onward. Literally "joke."

End, conclusion. Often seen in German analytical terminology: Schlussgruppe (closing group), Schlusskadenz (final cadence).

Fast. The standard German equivalent of Allegro or Vivace.

The art of distributing musical material among the instruments of an ensemble — choosing who plays what, when, and how.

A dominant chord (major triad or dominant seventh) that resolves to a chord other than the tonic. Notated V/x (e.g., V/V, V/ii).

Follow on — proceed to the next section without interruption. Similar to attacca but can also mean "continue in the same manner."

Longing, yearning — a deep, unfulfilled desire.

Very slow. The German equivalent of Molto lento or Largo.

Always, continuously. Sempre piano = remain soft throughout. Sempre legato = always connected.

Without. Used as a prefix: senza sordino (without mute), senza vibrato (without vibrato), senza tempo (without strict tempo).

A melodic or harmonic pattern repeated at successively higher or lower pitch levels.

A sudden, strong accent on a single note or chord. Abbreviated sfz or sf.

Similarly — continue in the same manner as before. Often used to avoid rewriting repeated articulation markings or patterns.

Extinguishing, dying away. Similar to morendo but sometimes implies a more abrupt dampening.

A passage for a small group of soloists, or the solo group in a concerto grosso.

A passage for a single performer, or the featured instrument in a concerto.

A three-part structure consisting of exposition (two contrasting themes), development (themes transformed), and recapitulation (themes return in the home key). The most important form in Classical and Romantic music.

Sustained — hold notes to their full value, with a broad, singing quality.

Literally "under the voice" — in an undertone, very softly as if whispering.

Mute — the French equivalent of sordino/Dämpfer.

A systematic method of teaching counterpoint in five progressively complex "species," codified by Johann Joseph Fux in "Gradus ad Parnassum" (1725).

A bouncing bow stroke where the bow leaves the string between each note.

Playing technique — the physical manner of sound production. Extended Spieltechniken = extended techniques (non-standard ways of producing sound).

Extremely short and detached. Marked with a wedge (▼) above or below the notehead.

Detached, shortened — each note clearly separated from the next. Marked with a dot above or below the notehead.

Intensification, buildup — a passage of increasing intensity leading to a climax.

Voice or part. In German scores, refers to individual instrumental or vocal parts. Oberstimme = upper voice; Unterstimme = lower voice.

In fugue: entries of the subject overlapping before the previous entry is complete, creating increased intensity. In general: a passage of accelerating tension toward a climax.

Pressing forward, tightening the tempo. Implies urgency as well as speed.

The fourth scale degree and its chord (IV). Creates a softer, less urgent pull than the dominant.

Suddenly, immediately. Subito piano (sp) = suddenly soft. Subito forte (sf) = suddenly loud.

The main theme of a fugue, stated at the outset and imitated by each subsequent voice.

Bowing near the bridge, producing a thin, glassy, overtone-rich sound.

Bowing over the fingerboard, producing a soft, flute-like, fundamental-rich sound.

A dissonance created by holding a note from the previous chord while the other voices move, then resolving it stepwise downward.

Accenting weak beats or off-beats, disturbing the normal pattern of strong and weak beats.

Be silent — the performer does not play for an entire movement or extended section.

In strict, exact time — maintaining a steady tempo without rubato or flexibility.

Return to the very first tempo of the piece (as opposed to the most recent tempo).

Held — sustain the note for its full written duration (or slightly longer). Marked with a horizontal line above or below the notehead.

A three-part form (ABA) where the first section returns after a contrasting middle section.

The most comfortable range of a voice or instrument — the register where it sounds its best and can sustain passages without strain.

A complete musical idea — a melody with phrase structure, usually 8–16 bars, that serves as the primary material for a movement or section.

The home pitch and chord (I) of a key — the point of rest and resolution toward which all other harmonies gravitate.

Briefly treating a non-tonic chord as a temporary tonic by preceding it with its own dominant (secondary dominant). Shorter and less committed than modulation.

Tranquilly, calmly — with peaceful, undisturbed character.

Writing music at a different pitch than it sounds. Transposing instruments (clarinet in B♭, horn in F) read notes that differ from the concert pitch they produce.

Rapid repetition of a single note (measured or unmeasured) or rapid alternation between two notes. A fundamental string orchestra texture.

Very slow.

Rapid alternation between a written note and the note above it. Notated with "tr" or a wavy line.

All performers playing together — the full ensemble.

All performers playing or singing the same pitch simultaneously (or at the octave).

A rapid, slight oscillation in pitch that adds warmth and expressiveness to sustained notes.

Lively, quick. The French equivalent of Vivace.

Lively and fast, typically 156–176 BPM. Implies spirited energy.

The way individual voices move from one chord to the next — the horizontal (melodic) aspect of harmonic progression.

Time (in the sense of occurrence). Prima volta = first time. Seconda volta = second time. Used with repeat brackets to indicate different endings.

A grace note or appoggiatura before the main note. Literally "before-stroke."

Tender, delicate — with extreme gentleness.